Endothelial function as a surrogate marker of cardiovascular disease Essays

Endothelial function as a surrogate marker of cardiovascular disease Essays Endothelial function as a surrogate marker of cardiovascular disease Essay Endothelial function as a surrogate marker of cardiovascular disease Essay Introduction: Cardiovascular disease is a group of upsets of the bosom and blood vass, and include coronary bosom disease, cerebrovascular disease, peripheral arterial disease, arthritic bosom disease, inborn bosom disease and deep vena thrombosis and pneumonic intercalation ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs317/en/ ) . Harmonizing to WHO, an estimated 17 million people dice of CVDs each twelvemonth, doing it the taking cause of decease worldwide. Expanding prevalence of cardiovascular disease, and increase in hazard factors for future events, triggered the demand for seeking for new attacks in order to incorporate the current tendencies. Recognition of new hazard factors, fresh drug marks aims to back up an accomplishment of established ends ( Tardif et al. , 2006 ) . For that ground, application of biomarkers in the development of improved cardiovascular intercession, in order to better public wellness, has been greatly recognised ( Tardif et al. , 2006 ) . The hazard appraisal based on more traditional biomarkers ( blood force per unit area, serum cholesterin degrees ) supported the development of presently available preventative and curative methods ( Tardif et al. , 2006 ) . Nevertheless, presently available CVDs hazard steps can foretell merely 60-70 % of cardiovascular events, excepting the population of patients at intermediate hazard, who show no clinical symptoms ( Vasan, 2006 ; 17! ; to check-4 ) . For that ground, other agencies of hazard rating are being in usage to place and handle symptomless patients who carry increased hazard ( Vasan, 2006 ) . Academic research establishments and private sector acknowledge the importance of biomarkers in order to better public wellness position ( Tardif et al. , 2006 ) . Yet, despite of current attempts, barely any alternates of cardiovascular events achieved validated place ( Tardif et al. , 2006 ) . The regulative organic structures recognize the biomarker as a characteristic that is objectively measured and evaluated as an index of normal biological procedure . Whereas, the alternates are biomarkers intended to replace for a clinical terminal point ( NIH-surrogate ; Tardif et al. , 2006 ; Cohn, 2004 ) . In other words, alternates are considered as forecasters of clinical result based on epidemiological, pathophysiological and curative grounds ( Tardif et al. , 2006 ) . The proof of alternates is based on verification that the marker shows correlativity with the true clinical result and has the ability to depict the full consequence of intercession on clinical result ( NIH-surrogate ; Tardif et al. , 2006 ) . Many foster campaigners show the relevancy to clinical terminal point, but they fail to expose the full curative consequence ( Tardif et al. , 2006 ) . The failure of campaigner biomarker to demo foster authority originates from missing grounds that the alternate ca uses the disease ; that the alternate is involved in merely one tract in the multiple-pathway disease ; that the alternate is sensitive to investigated intercession, or that the alternate measures an consequence independent from the disease procedure ( Tardif, et al. , 2006 ) . Sing that cardiovascular pathophysiology is the complex issue, it may be the instance that no individual biomarker will of all time supply ensigns on hazard appraisal ( Tardif, et al. , 2006 ) . Preliminary proof of a biomarker aims to turn out that the marker tracks with a validated alternate ; duplicability and standardisation ; acceptable sensitiveness and specificity as measured against clinical result. Novel biomarkers shown to track with a alternate antecedently validated on the footing of clinical end point trails may be more readily accepted ( Tardif, et al. , 2006 ) . Definitive proof includes presentation that the alteration due to intercession, independently predicts benefit and that a clear correlativity between a alternate and the result exists ( Tardif et al. , 2006 ) . By utilizing biomarkers in combination, better hazard profiles may emerge to supply predictive information, direct therapies to measure the efficaciousness of intercession ( Tardif, et al. , 2006 ; to check-5 ) . Current involvement focal points on markers of redness and oxidative emphasis, as a new foster campaigners in cardiovascular disease ( Tardif et al. , 2006 ) . Numerous surveies have demonstrated the potency of endothelial map to place hazard of cardiovascular events, even before clinical manifestation ( Mayo clinic-2003 ; Tardif, et al. , 2006 ) . The inquiry waiting ( staying ) to be answered is, whether the endothelial map, or instead physiology, would do ( or is ) a good alternate marker for the cardiovascular disease. A good starting point for this appraisal would be to supply some background information on physiology of this organ , followed by more elaborate reappraisal of presently available informations on the topic. Endothelial map: The vascular endothelium is considered as one of the largest paracrine, hormone and autocrine organ responsible for ordinance of vascular tone and care of vascular homeostasis ( Bonetti et al. , 2003 ; 17! ; 10! ) . Surveies on endothelium physiology ( or instead pathophysiology ) have provided an grounds on the importance of this organ in the development of coronary artery disease and its clinical effects ( Figure 1. ) ( review-2 ; Bonetti et al. , 2003 ; Higashi and Yoshizumi, 2003 ) . Figure 1. Progression of coronary artery disease in cardiovascular disease ( Higashi and Yoshizumi, 2003 ) . Physiological importance of the endothelium is achieved via secernment of assorted bioactive substances ( with peculiarly of import of azotic oxide ) , therefore keeping homeostasis of the vascular wall ( normal vasomotion, suppression of thrombocyte collection, thrombus coevals, care of impermeableness ) ( 6! ; 17! ; 10! ; Greenland et al. , 2000 ) . The vasoactive factors include loosen uping ( e. g. , adenosine, prostacylin ( PGI 2, azotic oxide ( NO ) , hydrogen peroxide ( H2O2, epoxyeicosatrienoic acids ( EETs ) , C-natriuretic peptide ( CNP ) and undertaking ( e. g. , thromboxane A 2, isoprostanes, superoxide anion, endothelin-1, angiiotensin II ) go-betweens ( 10! ) . Furthermore, endothelial cells straight communicate with smooth musculus cells via myoendothelial spread junctions ( 10! ) . Endothelial disfunction consequences in decrease of the bioavailability of vasodilatives, peculiarly azotic oxide ( NO ) , as the consequence of interaction between released O species and NO ( Benotti et al. , 2003 ) . At the same clip, an addition in endothelium-derived catching factors is observed. This instability leads to the abnormalcies of endothelium-dependent vasodilation ; the functional feature of endothelial disfunction ( Bonetti et al. , 2003 ) . Cardiovascular hazard factors affect many facets of the normal maps of the endothelium ( Bonetti et al. , 2003 ) , via activation of a figure of pro-oxidative cistrons in the vascular wall, ensuing in production of reactive O species that promote endothelial release of transcriptional and growing factors, proinflammatory cytokines, chemoattractant substances, adhesion molecules ( 17! ; 6! ) . All these determiners set the endothelium in a specific endothelial activation that promotes coronary artery disease ( Bonetti et al. , 2003 ) . Table 1. Atheroprotective effects of the Healthy Endothelium. ( Bonetti et al. , 2003 ) A complex cascade of events triggers the passage from normal endothelial map to its disfunction ( 6! ) . One of the earliest manifestation of increased vascular oxidizer emphasis is limited handiness of azotic oxide ( NO ) . The ensuing functional effects include unnatural vasomotor activity, development of a procoagulant endothelial surface, redness and eventually plague formation ( 6! ) . The bulk of conventional factors for cardiovascular disease are associated with endothelial disfunction ( Bonetti et al. , 2003 ) . These include hypercholesteremia, lipemia, high blood pressure, diabetes, smoking ( 6! ; Bonetti et al. , 2003 ) . For that ground, the extent of endothelial pathophysiology appears to be correlated with traditional factors ( 6! ) . Interestingly, persons with a similar hazard factor profile may demo important variableness of endothelial disfunction every bit good ( Hashimoto, 2003 ) . Bonetti et al. , ( 2003 ) explained this province as the consequence of threshold ordinance of which activation triggers cardiovascular events ( Bonetti et al. , 2003 ) Additional hazard determiners, such as infections, familial heterogeneousness, assorted continuance of exposure to hazard factors, and the figure of factor involved may farther lend to inconsistency ( Hashimoto et al. , 2003 ; 6! ) . Furthermore, endothelial map can be modulated by factors lending to vascular hurt, every bit good as fix mechanisms ( 6! ) . For that ground, the construct of endothelial vasodilative map reflects the vascular wellness position, supports the suggestion that this physiological determiner could be a utile diagnostic and predictive tool ( Bonetti et al. , 2003 ; 6! ) . And its application, as an independent forecaster of future or alrea dy bing cardiovascular events may be of usage. The standardisation of methods used to measure endothelial map play a important function in set uping the endothelial map as a alternate for cardiovascular events. Although no gilded criterion exists, several techniques ( invasive and non-invasive ) found its experimental and clinical application, supplying consequences with a conclusive statement ( Tamaki, 2003 ; Hashinoto et al. , 2003 ) . These methods involve the appraisal of the vas s diameter alteration or its blood flow alteration with vasodilatives ( Hashimoto et al. , 2003 ) . Angiography utilizing acetylcholine is an invasive manner of observing endothelial physiology. Flow-mediated dilation ( FMD ) ( the most widely used techniques ) , induced by reactive hyperemia is known to be endothelium-dependent and can be detected by high declaration ultrasound in superficial arterias non-invasively ( Bonetti et al. , 2003 ; 6! ; Hashimoto et al. , 2003 ) . *** The employment of PWA ( pulse wave analysis ) combined with pharmacological initiation, as the appraisal method of endothelial map has a possible to function as a non-invasive and practical tool in big population and clinical surveies ( Ibrahim et al. , 2009 ) . Other methods for endothelial map appraisal include the sensing of endothelial markers in the blood, such as endothelin, von Wallebrand factor and PAI-1 ( Hashimoto et al. , 2003 ) . Table 1. Prediction of future cardiovascular events by measurings of endothelial map ( 6! ) ABI indicates ankle-brachial index ; ACS, acute coronary syndromes ; BMI, organic structure mass index ; BP, blood force per unit area ; CAD, coronary arteria disease ; CHF, congestive bosom failure ; IMT, intima-media thickness ; MI, myocardial infarction ; NCA, normal coronary arterias ; NTG, nitroglycerin ; PAD, peripheral arteria disease. Table 2. Clinical application of possible foster functional markers for cardiovascular disease ( Vasan R. , 2006 ) . ( ? , unknown or questionable/equivocal informations ; + , some grounds ; ++ , good grounds ; +++ , strong grounds ) . Decisions: Cardiovascular disease is characterized by a really long, instead symptomless stage get downing at childhood ( lipid sedimentations in the intima of systemic arterias ) and come oning through a presymptomatic phase, eventually attesting itself at in-between age ( review-2 ; 17 ; 9 ; 10 ) . A biomarker characterized by truth and duplicability obtained via standardised appraisal will stand for a validated value for a clinical result ( Vasan R. , 2006 ) . Extra factors, such as its acceptableness by patients, an easiness of reading and high specificity will do a possible marker a strong campaigner for alternate ( Vasan R. , 2006 ) . Furthermore, the clear application of any new forecaster should be clearly specified ; that is whether it is for testing, diagnosing or measuring the intercession result, as there determinants extremely act upon the belongingss of biomarker ( Vasan R. , 2006 ) . The function of endothelial map in cardiovascular events has become the focal point of intens e probe. Abnormalities of the endothelium-dependent vasodilation represents a characteristic characteristic of developing coronary artery disease and corresponds with future cardiovascular hazard ( review-2 ; 17! ) . Therefore, measuring of endothelial map could potentially happen its application in hazard appraisal and betterment in curative result ( Benotti et al. , 2003 ; 17! ) . For endothelial map to go to the full validated alternate, standardisation of techniques used for appraisal is required. Furthermore, a big scale epidemiological and clinical is needed in order to measure the correlativity between endothelial map and cardiovascular hazard factors as a forecaster of undertaken intercession, such as showing, diagnosing, forecast and therapy monitoring ( Vasan et al. , 2006 ) . Mention: 193 Edward gibbons GH, Liew CC, Goodarzi MO, Rotter JI, Hsueh WA, Siragy HM, Pratt R, Dzau VJ. Familial markers: advancement and potency for cardiovascular disease. Circulation. 2004 ; 109: IV-47. 231- Cohn JN, Quyyumi AA, Hollenberg NK, Jamerson KA. Surrogate markers for cardiovascular disease: functional markers. Circulation. 2004 ; 109: IV-31. 232 Mancini GBJ, Dahlof B, Diez J. Surrogate markers for cardiovascular disease: structural markers. Circulation. 2004 ; 109: IV-22. 233 Ridker PM, Brown NJ, Vaughan DE, Harrison DG, Mehta JL. Established and emerging plasma biomarkers in the anticipation of first atherothrombotic events. Circulation. 2004 ; 109: IV-6. Biomarkers Tardif J. C. , et al. , Vascular Biomarkers and Surrogates in Cardiovascular Disease. Circulation. 2006 ; 113:2936-2942. 11-biomarker Vasan R. , Biomarkers of Cardiovascular Disease: Molecular Basis and Practical Considerations. Circulation. 2006 ; 113:2335-2362. Ibrahim N.N.I. , et Al. Prevalence of A ; Icirc ; ?-2 adrenergic receptor ( A ; Icirc ; ?2AR ) polymorphisms and its influence on a theoretical account used to measure endothelial map utilizing pulse moving ridge analysis ( PWA ) . Clinica Chimica Acta. 2009 ; 409: 62-66. Hashimoto M. et Al. New Methods to Measure Endothelial Function: Non-invasive Method of Evaluating Endothelial Function in Humans. Journal of Pharmacological Sciences. 2003 ; 93, 405 408 8

Battle of Taranto in World War II

Battle of Taranto in World War II The Battle of Taranto was fought the night of November 11/12, 1940 and was part of the Mediterranean Campaign of World War II (1939-1945). In 1940, British forces began battling the Italians in North Africa. While the Italians were easily able to supply their troops, the logistical situation for the British proved more difficult as their ships had to traverse almost the entire Mediterranean. Early in the campaign, the British were able to control the sea lanes, however by mid-1940 the tables were beginning to turn, with the Italians outnumbering them in every class of ship except aircraft carriers. Though they possessed superior strength, the Italian Regia Marina was unwilling to fight, preferring to follow a strategy of preserving a fleet in being. Concerned that Italian naval strength be reduced before the Germans could aid their ally, Prime Minister Winston Churchill issued orders that action be taken on the issue. Planning for this type of eventuality had begun as early as 1938, during the Munich Crisis, when Admiral Sir Dudley Pound, commander of the Mediterranean Fleet, directed his staff to examine options for attacking the Italian base at Taranto. During this time, Captain Lumley Lyster of the carrier HMS Glorious proposed using its aircraft to mount a nighttime strike. Convinced by Lyster, Pound ordered training to commence, but the resolution of the crisis led to the operation being shelved.   Upon departing the Mediterranean Fleet, Pound advised his replacement, Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham, of the proposed plan, then known as Operation Judgement. The plan was reactivated in September 1940, when its principal author, Lyster, now a rear admiral, joined Cunninghams fleet with the new carrier HMS Illustrious.  Cunningham and Lyster refined the plan and planned to move forward with Operation Judgement on October 21, Trafalgar Day, with aircraft from HMS Illustrious and HMS Eagle. The British Plan The composition of the strike force was later changed following fire damage to Illustrious and action damage to Eagle. While Eagle was being repaired, it was decided to press on with the attack using only Illustrious. Several of Eagles aircraft were transferred to augment Illustrious air group and the carrier sailed on November 6. Commanding the task force, Lysters squadron included Illustrious, the heavy cruisers HMS Berwick and HMS York, the light cruisers HMS Gloucester and HMS Glasgow, and the destroyers HMS Hyperion, HMS Ilex, HMS Hasty, and HMS Havelock.    Preparations In the days before the attack, the Royal Air Forces No. 431 General Reconnaissance Flight conducted several reconnaissance flights from Malta to confirm the presence of the Italian fleet at Taranto. Photographs from these flights indicated changes to the bases defenses, such as the deployment of barrage balloons, and Lyster ordered the necessary alterations to the strike plan. The situation at Taranto was confirmed on the night of November 11, by an overflight by a Short Sunderland flying boat. Spotted by the Italians, this aircraft alerted their defenses, however as they lacked radar they were unaware of the impending attack. At Taranto, the base was defended by 101 anti-aircraft guns and around 27 barrage balloons. Additional balloons had been placed but had been lost due to high winds on November 6. In the anchorage, the larger warships normally would have been protected by anti-torpedo nets but many had been removed in anticipation of a pending gunnery exercise. Those that were in place did not extend deep enough to fully protect against the British torpedoes. Fleets Commanders: Royal Navy Admiral Sir Andrew CunninghamRear Admiral Lumley Lyster24 torpedo bombers, 1 aircraft carrier, 2 heavy cruisers, 2 light cruisers, 4 destroyers Regia Marina Admiral Inigo Campioni6 battleships, 7 heavy cruisers, 2 light cruisers, 8 destroyers Planes in the Night Aboard Illustrious, 21 Fairey Swordfish biplane torpedo bombers began taking off on the night of November 11 as Lysters task force moved through the Ionian Sea. Eleven of the planes were armed with torpedoes, while the remainder carried flares and bombs. The British plan called for the planes to attack in two waves. The first wave was assigned targets in both the outer and inner harbors of Taranto. Led by Lieutenant Commander Kenneth Williamson, the first flight departed Illustrious around 9:00 PM on November 11.   The second wave, directed by Lieutenant Commander J. W. Hale, took off approximately 90 minutes later. Approaching the harbor just before 11:00 PM, part of Williamsons flight dropped flares and bombed oil storage tanks while the remainder of the aircraft commenced their attack runs on the 6 battleships, 7 heavy cruisers, 2 light cruisers, 8 destroyers in the harbor. These saw the battleship Conte di Cavour hit with a torpedo that caused critical damage while the battleship Littorio also sustained two torpedo strikes. In the course of these attacks, Williamsons Swordfish was downed by fire from  Conte di Cavour. The bomber section of Williamsons flight, led by Captain Oliver Patch, Royal Marines, attacked hitting two cruisers moored in the Mar Piccolo.    Hales flight of nine aircraft, four armed with bombers and five with torpedoes, approached Taranto from the north around midnight.   Dropping flares, the Swordfish endured intense, but ineffective, antiaircraft fire as they began their runs. Two of Hales crews attacked Littorio scoring one torpedo hit while another missed in an attempt on the battleship  Vittorio Veneto.   Another Swordfish succeeded in striking the battleship  Caio Duilio with a torpedo, tearing a large hole in the bow and flooding its forward magazines.   Their ordnance expended, the second flight cleared the harbor and returned to Illustrious. Aftermath In their wake, the 21 Swordfish left Conte di Cavour sunk and the battleships Littorio and Caio Duilio heavily damaged. The latter had been intentionally grounded to prevent its sinking. They also badly damaged a heavy cruiser. British losses were two Swordfish flown by Williamson and Lieutenant Gerald W.L.A. Bayly.   While Williamson and his observer Lieutenant N.J. Scarlett were captured, Bayly and his observer, Lieutenant H.J. Slaughter were killed in action. In one night, the Royal Navy succeeded in halving the Italian battleship fleet and gained a tremendous advantage in the Mediterranean. As a result of the strike, the Italians withdrew the bulk of their fleet farther north to Naples. The Taranto Raid changed many naval experts thoughts regarding air-launched torpedo attacks. Prior to Taranto, many believed that deep water (100 ft.) was needed to successfully drop torpedoes. To compensate for the shallow water of Taranto harbor (40 ft.), the British specially modified their torpedoes and dropped them from very low altitude. This solution, as well as other aspects of the raid, was heavily studied by the Japanese as they planned their attack on Pearl Harbor the following year.